Varna (Hinduism)

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Etymology and origins

Varna is a Sanskrit term varṇa (वर्ण) is derived from the root vṛ, meaning "to cover, to envelop" (compare vṛtra). Derived meanings include "coat, mantle; outward appearance, exterior form" and hence "colour", and more generally "kind, sort, character, quality". All these meanings are already present in the Rigveda's use of the word.

The meaning "class of men, tribe" in the Rigveda refers to the division between Aryas and Dasas. The earliest application to the formal division into four social classes appears in the Manusmriti, a law text dating to roughly between 200 BCE and 200 CE. The Manusmriti's division does have a precedent in the Rigvedic Purusha Sukta (RV 10.90.11–12), which has the Brahman, Rajanya (= Kshatriya), Vaishya and Shudra classes made of the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the primordial giant, Purusha, respectivel.

The varna classification was made by the Brahmin poets and priests (Rgveda 10.90, Brahmana texts).

Rigvedic evidence of such a quadruple division of society has been compared to similar systems, especially with a view to reconstructing hypothetical Proto-Indo-European society. Such comparison is at the basis of the trifunctional hypothesis presented by Georges Dumézil. Dumézil postulates a basic division of society into a priesthood (Brahmins), warrior class or nobility (Kshatriyas) and commoners (Vaishyas), augmented by a class of unfree serfs (Shudras), as was done in ancient Iran and Greece as well (where the fourth class is called pan-Hellenes).

The four varnas

The system of four varnas is also mentioned in Bhagavad-Gita 4.13:

cātur-varṇyaḿ mayā sṛṣṭaḿ guṇa-karma-vibhāgaśaḥ |

tasya kartāram api māḿ viddhy akartāram avyayam ||

"The four orders of society were created by Me [Krishna] classifying them according to the mode of Prakrti predominant in each and apportioning corresponding duties to them; though the author of this creation, know Me, the immortal Lord, to be a non-doer." ^[3]

The varna system is also mentioned in the Purusha sukta (RV 10.90.12), which states "The Brahmana was the mouth of the purusha, his two arms were made into the Rajanya, his two thighs were the Vaishya, and from his two feet the Shudra was born."^[4],

The later concept of caste system refers to the modern form of varnashrama in Hindu society. It is similar to the traditional system in the sense that it recognizes the four varnas as described above. However, the modern caste system also contains various subgroups of each varna as well as classes (e.g., Dali) which are not recognized in the scriptural varnashrama system.

Hindu tradition

The Purusha Sukta in the Rig-Veda 10:90 refers to the four principal varnas, although the word varna is not used, described in Manu's code, viz. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. They are compared to the body of the "primordial man" or Purusha: "The Brâhmana was his mouth, of both his arms was the Râjanya made. His thighs became the Vaishya, his feet became the Sûdra" (RV 10.90.12) This model is often cited for its hierarchical ordering of the varnas, however, by the same logic the model also implies the concept of interdependence and interchangeability of the varnas. Furthermore reading this mantra within the entire context of the Purusha Sukta, which also describes the Purusha as the origin of the Sun (from his eye), the Moon (from his mind), the sky (from his head), air (from his navel), horses, cattle, etc. leads one to the conclusion that the entire Sukta is emphasizing the point that all these come from the original Purusha. Thus, the superiority/inferiority does not appear to be the main idea of the text.

There is a story in the Chandogya Upanishad 4.4.1-5 of a boy, Satyakama by name, who wished to present himself before a guru for spiritual instruction but did not know his gotra or family lineage, which is ordinarily required before one can be initiated in the Vedic tradition. When asked of his gotra by his prospective guru, Satyakama truthfully told him that he did not know his gotra and that he was instructed to refer to himself simply as "Satyakama Jabala" or in other words, Satyakama son of Jabala (his mother). His guru was impressed with his honesty and concluded, despite not knowing the boy's gotra, that Satyakama was a brahmin and could thus receive initiation.^[5] Some modern Hindu thinkers claim that this story downplays the importance of heredity in favor of qualification, as Satyakama was accepted as a brahmin despite there being no proof his hereditary brahminical status. However, traditional commentators such as Sri Sankaracharya uphold the view that the truth-telling was itself regarded by the guru as evidence of the boy's brahminical lineage, which, along with the fact that guru requested to know the boy's lineage, implies that heredity was a prerequisite for initiation as a brahmin.

In the Bhagavad-Gita 4:13, the Lord Krishna pointedly declares that not by birth/hereditary reasons, but that the class of an individual is based on each person's inherent nature and capability in doing work.^[6]

Many Hindu yogis and sages have, over the centuries, constantly commented about inheriting social status. Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th century), the powerful bhakti of Krishna also denounced inheriting social status. He famously distributed the Hare Krishna mantra to all around India, claiming this was the True path to moksha.

Kanakadasa of the 15th century also denounced inherited social status. He believed that Life in every human being is Divine, and that only the ignorant wrought injustice against their own brethren by this practice. Basavanna of the 12th century is said to have denounced inherited social status and tried to unify all communities under the Linga (form of Shiva).

The Dharmaśāstras

The concept of dharma deals mainly with the duties of the different varṇas and āśhramas (life cycles). Therefore most of the dharmaśāstras lay down the duties of people during the different parts of life and the duties of the different castes. The dharmaśāstras were written by Brahmins for Brahmins, therefore the greater part of them deals with the duties of the Brahmins. The part pertaining to the court system deals with the role of the Kṣatriya, in their role as the ruling class. However, the sections reserved for the Vaiśyas and the Śūdras are very short. In fact, in the Manuśmrti, the section marked for the Śūdras simply reads that they should do what they can to serve the Brahmins, and indicates that if they do well by the Brahmins they will be reborn into a higher caste. Though they are not allowed to recite the ritual formulas, they may do what they can to know and practice the Law through the imitation of Brahmins, as long as they do not do it out of envy.^[7].

Manusmṛti is often quoted in reference to the Varna system as an inherited social class system. However, the Hindu rightists usually point out that the Manusmṛti is a later work that does not form a part of Hindu Scriptures, so it is of questionable relevance. The rightists content that the Manusmṛti has been used by British colonialists, politicians and sociologists to denigrate those of the Hindu faith.[1].

The Manusmṛti claims that by the time it was written in ancient times, Hindu society included another class (untouchables) of people without a position in any of the four Varnas and therefore associated with the lowest of the jobs. The upper classes, who were supposed to maintain ritual and corporal purity, came to regard them as untouchables. The people of this "fifth varna" are now called Dalits (the oppressed) or Harijans; they were formerly known as "untouchables" or "pariahs". However, this last addition social strata is not a part of the religion of Hinduism. Hinduism only categorizes occupations into four categories.

Intermarriage

While intermarriage between Brahmana bridegrooms and Kshatriya princesses was common (even sanctioned by the later Manusmṛti), in many instances, marriages between Kshatriya princes and Brahmana brides were also observed (yet being severely condemned by Manusṛmrti). One of such instances is the marriage of Yayati, a Kshatriya King, with Devayani, a daughter of the sage Shukracharya.

In intermarriages, the wife will obtain the class accorded to her husband, and gain his distinguished qualities “like a river uniting with the ocean.”^[8] However, she does not completely lose her original class. If there are wives from different classes, their seniority was based upon their respected number and class.

Movement between Varṇas

According to Yājñavalkya, the intermarriage offspring may continue to marry into other classes and produce children that can obtain that class. For example, if a Śūdra woman marries a Brahmin, and her mixed caste daughter marries a Brahmin, and this pattern continues, at the seventh generation, the child is a pure Brahmin. The number of generations needed for this to happen is reduced by one according to the castes. So, a Vaiśya would take six generations to become a Brahmin and a Kṣatriya would take five. The reverse can also happen. If a Brahmin begins to follow the livelihood of a Śūdra, and his son does the same and so on, by the seventh generation, the son becomes a Śūdra and a Śūdra can become a Brahmin through following a Brahmin’s livelihood for a seven generations.

Punishment

A portion of the Manusmṛti dealt with certain offenses and how one of a certain class should be punished for that offense. The punishments can vary greatly according to the varṇa the offender belongs to. For example, if a Śūdra should insult a Brahmin, he got corporeal punishment. If a Brahmin insults a Śūdra, he is only fined 12 units, this was due to the fact that a brahmin did not have any profession and relied on alms and it would be very difficult for him to pay the fine, which was even severe than the former.^[9]^[10]. According to Nārada, if a Śūdra insults a king, while the king is “engaged in his duties,” he will also be punished corporeally.^[11] In Manu, a Śūdra is the only one who must suffer corporeal punishment for insulting the twice-born castes. The other classes are merely fined, with the amount of the fine increasing for each caste level.

On the other hand, within the Nāradasmṛti, Kṣatriyas, Vaiśyas, and Śūdras are all susceptible to corporeal punishment. When it comes to criminal acts, the punishments are applied uniformly to members of each class. Brahmins, however, cannot be corporeally punished. Bhava says this is due to the reverence owed to their class.^[12]

Particular tasks and times of adversity

There is a lot of effort put into making sure each caste does the tasks specifically related to the caste, if conditions allow. If the castes “deviate from their specific activities, they throw the world into confusion.”^[13] Manu says that when a Vaiśya is willing to farm animals, then no other caste should do that task.^[14] If a Śūdra wishes to give instruction on the Law to Brahmins, he is corporeally punished. Both Manu and Nārada instructs the ruler to pour boiling oil into his mouth and ears.^[15] Śūdras are also not given leave to get wealthy. According to Manu, if he does, he harasses Brahmin.^[16] The greatest activity a Śūdra can engage in is the service of Brahmins. Manu states, “…the Śūdra was created by the Self-existent One solely to do slave labor for the Brahmin.”^[17]

However, the Manusmṛti also provides for times of adversity, when it is not always possible to survive when one’s activities are restricted by the caste system. While Brahmins are instructed to provide for those in need of a livelihood if possible, this is not always practical.^[18] If a Śūdra is unable to make a livelihood through the service of Brahmins or the other twice-born, he may then engage in artisanship.^[19] Conversely, if a Vaiśya is unable to make a living doing his duty, he may resort to the work of a Śūdra, and should discontinue this work as soon as it is possible. A Vaiśya or kṣatriya, however, cannot be forced into slave labor against their will.^[20]

The twice born

The first three varnas are seen as 'twice born'. They are allowed to study the Vedas. In India and Nepal the sub-communities within a Varna are called Jat or Jati (The varna is also used instead of Jat). Traditionally, each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati members. People are born into their Jati and normally it cannot be changed, though there were some exceptions in Hindu Scriptures. For example, sage Vishwamitra was born as a Kshatriya (ruling class) and by deep meditation (tapas) became a venerable Brahmin rishi (saint). Once someone is born to certain sub-community or Jati he or she cannot normally change their Jati, However in that life time, good deeds can allow a lowclass jati member to ascend to the upperclass and study the vedas as a Brahmin priest. The occupations of the Vaishya are those connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding of cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the people, administering justice, and the duties, of the military profession generally and ruling and expounding all Dharma. Both share with the Brahmin the privilege of reading the Vedas. To the Brahmin belongs the right of teaching and expounding the sacred texts. Shudras were the serfs, and performed agricultural labour. Muluki Ain has incorporated the entire ethnic group of Nepal into the social hierarchy.

Tantric view

The Tantric movement that developed as a tradition distinct from orthodox Hinduism between the 8th and 11th centuries CE^[21] also relaxed many societal strictures regarding class and community distinction. However it would be an over generalization to say that the Tantrics did away with all social restrictions, as N. N. Bhattacharyya explains:

"For example, Tantra according to its very nature has nothing to do with the [class] system but in the later Tantras [class] elements are pronounced. This is due to the fact that although many of our known Tantric teachers were non-Brāhmaṇas, rather belonging to the lower ranks of society, almost all of the known authors of the Tantric treatises were Brāhmaṇas."^[22]

Varna and Jati

The terms Varna (general classification based on occupation) and Jati (caste) are two distinct concepts. Varna (from Sanskrit, literally "arrangement") is usually a unification of all the Hindu castes or jatis into four groups: Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra. It is sometimes also used to refer to this unification into one of several varna-sankaras वर्ण संकर. Jati (community) is an endogamous group. Generally a sub-community is divided into exogamous groups based on same gotras गोत्र. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas. Indologists sometimes confuse the two.^[23]

Many of the Hindus could be classified into a specific varna. But not all. During the British rule, several cases went to court to settle the "varna" of a sub-community. For example, the farmers are sometimes given Kshatriya status because many ruling Chieftains may have risen from them. On the other hand some classified them as Vaishya, based on an older occupation of artisans. Orthodox Brahmins may classify them as Shudras, because they do not have a tradition of undergoing through the thread ceremony, that would make them dvija द्विज (dvijya being a term referring to the three high varnas - Brahmin, Kashatriya and Vaishya - members of which are allowed to engage in the thread ceremony and thereby gain the right to education).

In modern India

Opposition within Hinduism

Critics point that the effect of communities (jatis) inheriting varna was to bind certain communities to sources of influence, power and economy while locking out others and thus create more affluence for jatis in higher classes and severe poverty for jatis in lower classes and the outcaste Dalit. In the last 150 years Indian movements arose to throw off the economic and political yoke of an inherited class system that emerged over time, and replace it with what they believed to be true Varnashrama dharma as described in the Vedas.

In the religious scripture Mahabharata, Yudhisthira, is questioned by Yama in the form of a Yaksha, about what makes one a Brahmin. Yudhisthira, without hesitation, said that it is conduct alone that makes one a Brahmin.

Ramananda, an ascetic of the Sri Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnava sampradaya, accepted all varna as his disciples. Mirabai, the 15th century mystical poet and Queen of Chittor is known to have ignored varna distinctions and elected the cobbler, Sant Rohidas, as her guru. Annamacharya, a 15th-century telugu poet's famous Bramhamokkada song, preaches equality of all in the eyes of God and condemns inheriting social status as un-Vedic. And proposed a return to traditional varnashrama dharma. Which promoted equality and stressed the importance of all varnas. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the 19th century Hindu religious leader, also did not recognise varna distinctions and took his first alms as a twice-born Brahmin from a Shudra woman.

The late Swami Krishnananda, a foremost disciple of Swami Sivananda and former General Secretary of Divine Life Society, noted the following about inherited social status in his autobiography:

"While the [varna] system was originally evolved for the necessary classification of human duty in order to preserve the organic stability of society, its original meaning and its philosophical foundation was forgotten through the passage of time, and bigotry and fanaticism took its place through the preponderance of egoism, greed and hatred, contrary to the practice of true religion as a social expression of inner spiritual aspiration for a gradual ascent, by stages, to God Almighty. Vidura, famous in the Mahabharata, was born of a Shudra woman. But he had the power to summon the son of Brahma, from Brahmaloka, by mere thought. Which orthodox Brahmin can achieve this astounding feat? It is, therefore, necessary for everyone to have consideration for the facts of world-unity and goodwill, Sarvabhuta-hita, as the great Lord mentions in the Bhagavad Gita. Justice is more than law. No one's body is by itself a Brahmin, because it is constituted of the five gross elements,- earth, water, fire, air and ether. Else, it would be a sin on the part of a son to consign to flames the lifeless body of a Brahmin father. It is, therefore, not proper to victimise a colleague by an action plan of any religious community wedded to fundamentalist doctrines."[2]

Paramahansa Yogananda also opposed what he called to the un-Vedic inherited social status as we know it today. He taught that varna originated in a higher age, but became degraded through ignorance and self-interest. Yogananda said:

"These were (originally) symbolic designations of the stages of spiritual refinement. They were not intended as social categories. And they were not intended to be hereditary. Things changed as the yugas [cycles of time] descended toward mental darkness. People in the higher [classes] wanted to make sure their children were accepted as members of their own [class]. Thus, ego-identification caused them to freeze the ancient classifications into what is called the ‘caste system.’ Such was not the original intention. In obvious fact, however, the offspring of a brahmin may be a shudra by nature. And a peasant, sometimes, is a real saint."

—from Conversations with Yogananda, Crystal Clarity Publishers, 2003.

References

↑ M. Mayrhofer, Etymological Dictionary II 518
↑ Mark Juergensmeyer, (2006) The Oxford Handbook of Global Religions (Oxford Handbooks in Religion and Theology), p. 54
↑ The BhagavadGita or The Song Divine. Gita Press, Gorakhpur, India pg42
↑ http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/rv10090.htm
↑ http://www.swamij.com/upanishad-chandogya.htm
↑ http://www.asitis.com/4/13.html
↑ Manuśmrti 10.127-128
↑ Manusmṛti 9.22
↑ Manusmṛti 8.271
↑ Manusmṛti 8.268
↑ Nāradasmṛti 16-17.29
↑ Nāradasmṛti 15.8
↑ Manusmṛti 8.418
↑ Ibid 9.328
↑ Ibid 8.272
↑ Ibid 10.129
↑ Ibid 8.413
↑ Ibid 8.411
↑ Ibid 10.99
↑ Ibid 8.412
↑ Flood, Gavin, "The Śaiva Traditions" in: Flood (2005; paperback edition of Flood 2003) p.208
↑ N. N. Bhattacharyya. History of the Tantric Religion, p. 44-5.
↑ Dumont, Louis (1980), Homo hierarchicus: the caste system and its implications, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 66–67, ISBN 0-226-16963-4

Lal, Vinay (2005), Introducing Hinduism, New York: Totem Books, pp. 132–33, ISBN 9781840466263

External links

Maanoj Rakhit on the Varna system
Jati system in India
India Together on Caste
Annihilation of Caste with a Reply to Mahatma Gandhi Part I & Part II by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
Writings by Dr Ambedkar about Caste Online texts
Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures (pdf)
Articles on Caste by Koenraad Elst: Caste in India, Buddhism and Caste, Indian tribals and Caste, Physical anthropology and Caste, Etymology of Varna
Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?
Authentic Caste System by Monk of The Century:Shankaracharya Shri Chandrasekharendra Saraswati Maharaj
Association of Devotees
[1] Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, by Susan Bayly and Gordon Johnson.